History-failure of Italian Revolutionaries Essay Example for Free

History-failure of Italian Revolutionaries Essay There were several factors affecting the failure of the Italian revolutionaries in the years 1820-49. Although the lack of popular support was a contributing factor, it is far less significant when compared to other aspects of the failure such as the intervention and military strength of Austria, the lack of unity between various revolutionary factions and the lack of outside help from other countries. One of the key factors of the revolutionary’s failures was due to the repeated involvement by Austria and its imposing army, who were a major force in Europe and the world at the time. Led by Metternich, the Austrian’s quashed revolution after revolution. For example, in 1821, where King Ferdinand had granted his state, Naples, a constitution out of ‘fear’, he appealed to Metternich for help, who duly obliged as he opposed the revolutionaries because they ‘disturbed the peace’ in the whole region. Therefore, in March 1821, Austrian troops marched into Naples and easily overran the rebel forces with a superior army in strength, training and weaponry. This made it almost impossible for any revolutionary group, whether united or separate, to outmatch the Austrians, whose military strength was far greater than the revolutionaries. This also occurred in 1848, when Charles Albert, revolutionary king of the most powerful state, Piedmont was twice devastated by the Austrian’s. First, in June, he was defeated in Custoza and forced to sign an armistice withdrawing from Lombardy and again in March 1849 where he was heavily defeated in Novaro. This was a theme throughout the entire time period of 1820-49, with Metternich crushing revolutions in Piedmont, Lombardy and Sicily among others, with this trend only declining when revolutions arose in Vienna, forcing Metternich to focus on events closer to home. Therefore Austrian military might was an overwhelmingly strong factor in the failure of every revolution in this time period. Another reason for the failures was a distinct lack of unity in almost all of the revolution, with the groups from different states and areas refusing to cooperate with each other as they were in the main more concerned with local affairs than the bigger picture of a united Italy. For example, in 1832, Modena appealed for help from the  revolutionary government of Bologna for no particular reason other than they didn’t want to communicate or cooperate with one another. Another example is the Sicilian revolutions. They started a revolution in their capital city of Palermo and had soon ousted the previous regime to replace it with a revolutionary provisional government. However, when revolutions spread to the mainland of Naples a few days later, they had no plans of assisting them; instead making their policies clear by breaking away from Naples and becoming an independent state. Instead of national or regional unity, they instead, from the entire period of 1820-1848, wanted a free and sovereign country of their own. The fact that the different groups didn’t cooperate with one another, and in some cases, such as this, had entirely dissimilar aims for having a revolution, meant that they could easily be overridden one by one because individually they were very weak. A lack of outside help from other countries that were meant to be enemies with Austria did not help the revolutionaries cause. At the beginning of the revolutions in 1820, fresh off the back of the establishment of the new republic in France after the French revolutions, there was the hope that they would support the Italian revolutionaries in overthrowing their reactionary rulers, just as the French had done to their own monarchs less than 30 years before. In 1831 as well, despite appeals for French help, their pleas were ignored and Austria swept the isolated revolutions aside. In fact, instead of assisting the revolutionaries, in 1848 they instead intervened seemingly on the other side of the revolutions in order to assist the Pope, but in doing so they overpowered the Roman Republic, a revolutionary area headed by Giuseppe Mazzini. The French military brought hardship upon the people of the Rome after defeating Mazzini, seemingly in a hypocritical way as they themselves had fought to rid themselves of an iron grip previously but were instead now the iron grip rulers. On the Popes return, the repressive regime present before the Roman Republic returned. This shows that the French were far more against the revolutions than for them. They would’ve been the natural protector of the revolutions due to their recent history and their hatred of Austria, but it wasn’t to be and this was a key reason in why the uprisings ultimately all failed. Despite these reasons, the lack of popular support was no doubt a contributing  factor into the revolutions failure. The fact that in most states, around 90% of the population were peasants, but were not included in any decisions or contributed to the fighting effort meant that there was never likely to be popular support, because peasants views were not heard so their living conditions wouldn’t necessarily change no matter who was in charge. They would most likely have very little idea of what was even happening in their state. For example, in 1831 the peasants were deliberately excluded from taking part in any form of the revolutions, except for in Sicily where peasants were involved. This was due to the fact that the middle class professionals believed that the poorly educated peasants would end up being detrimental to the cause and would spark their own revolution fighting for their rights and eventually leading to the rule of the mob. Overall, there were several key factors in the failure of the revolutions between 1820 and 1849, such as the might of Austria, the distinct lack of unity between revolutionary divisions and the lack of allies from the international community. Despite the importance of these factors, the lack of popular support cannot be ignored as a factor, but the middle classes had a steadfast fear that if they permitted peasant help, they would turn the cause into riots. This was seen in Sicily where peasant assistance was encouraged, but ended in the masses destroying property, freeing prisoners and burning tax collection papers, as they had the sole intention of causing anarchy. Therefore, the lack of popular support was not a crucial factor but merely a side point in the revolutions failures.

Study on the Usability of Semiotics in Graphic Design

Study on the Usability of Semiotics in Graphic Design Keywords: Fine, flat, graphic design, semiotics, usability studies. Abstract. Currently, The current flat design has become a mainstream approach is widely used in web design, computer and mobile phone systems, interface design. In graphic design, graphic symbol design is increasingly being taken seriously and use minimalist design symbols often appear in print design plane, PPT presentations, public areas, identity-oriented system like. This paper discusses the design of graphical symbols flat in graphic design use need to make the audience cognitive ability, graphic symbols standardized principles, design principles angles for effective information design to achieve efficient information communication. Materialized mostly graphic image symbols, and mostly flat graphic indicator; flat screen symbol by the proposed development materialized symbol interface evolved. Materialized the graphical interface and the graphical interface is flat coexist and cannot replace each other. During the design, the designer should be based on the advantages and disadv antages of the two styles complement each other interfaces, common graphical interface design services. Introduction Today, the mobile Internet as an important sign towards the information society, information resources to meet the people of the richness, diversity and access mode flexibility, convenience and mobility needs. The emergence of mobile terminal makes access to information even more ways to enhance an absolutely important position, but also because of this, people on the phones features, quality and other requirements are also increasing. The main task of graphic design is to strengthen the exchange of information between people, is the performance of graphical symbols tool exchange required. The current flat design has become a mainstream approach is widely used in web design, computer and phone system interface, PPT, flat-screen print and in public areas such as identity-oriented system design. Simple graphical symbol accompanied by a short text message to pass different meaning, purpose is to allow people to quickly clear awareness and understanding. Graphic design appropriate symbol not only bring visual beauty, but also to replace the cumbersome expressed in words, to convey information at a glance. In recent years, flat style swept the field of digital interface, the smart phone in its interface design is also increasingly used to this style, as a smart phone interface main elements, carries the flattened icon indicating the function information important role in transmission, its operating efficiency has been much attention to design practitioners and the research community. Currently on academic research among flat design, the icon for the study of usability problems are more scarce, the vast majority of existing research dedicated to qualitative theoretical analysis, the lack of objective quantitative research as a reference, and thus the actual availability of flat icons lack of a clear conclusion and in this study, for the first time physiological data with a combination of psychological data on the availability of flat icons depth study. As a smart phone user interface in an integral part of the design of the phone icon in the experience economy driven began to play an increasingly important role, it carries with it the expression of specific functions and the important role of transmitting information. At the same time, the merits of icon design will directly affect the user experience and operational efficiency user interface design has become an important factor affecting the success or failure. Current research work related to academia flat design which is ongoing, this article from the perspective of design elements, the existing theoretical research supplement; At the same time, the existing research on the flat design and design of the actual use of materialized efficiency is no clear discussion of the results, a lot of literature has pointed flat icon simple, efficient features in the study, but the lack of evidence of objective evidence, so we are starting from a usability point of view, as experiments on fl at icons materialized icon comparative study, you can search for two types of icons efficiency more in-depth discussion, in order to provide an objective reference for the relevant academic research. Figure.1 Flat design The Proposed Methodology User interface virtualization.  With the rapid spread of smart mobile phones alternative to traditional phone and touch-screen technology, mobile phone interface, any original physical button has been gradually transformed into the software interface of the virtual keys. In the pursuit of handset design and integrated accounting wave, many Android phones also have physical buttons below the screens only designed to become a key form of induction, a trend that makes the most of the smart phone in addition to home and on key volume, lock screen button, theres no extra physical keys, the operation of mobile phone users by the majority of the screen is completed, and thus gradually evolved detail gesture commands. Figure.1 Schematic diagram of operating gestures flat design.Flat first refers to the modern enterprise management process, in response to the plight of the traditional hierarchical organizational structure faced adopted a management model. The core of the model is to reduce the layers of management and appropriate management of all levels of management to increase the amplitude, and eventually will be similar to the pyramid form of organization into a more flattened form to improve management efficiency. From a social development perspective, the idea of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹easing the situation well in all areas due to the rapid economic development brought about by organizational level redundancy, and therefore outside the field of business management, this concept also has good application value. As a new, more and more designers and design style used by the organization, not simply flat design with innovative visual style to win users eye, but through the extra ingredient abandoned in the design and the decorative elements of restraint, giving users a better experience. In the new digital era background, flat design choose a more suitable for the characteristics of the virtual interface design approach, rather than a continuation of the traditional design style, it is precisely because it has brought the rapid development of flat design in recent years. Materialized design.From the visual style, the materialized with the flat in stark contrast to the former by giving audiences do addition way, the use of shadows, highlights and a gradient effect on image icon to maximize close to the real object, with vivid three-dimensional effect to use bring a strong visual impact; while the latter is in the form of subtraction, to remove redundant decorative elements, and then extract the main part of the article, and present them in the form of simple graphs. Although the two images using a different design approach (the former and the latter is a flat style quasi-physical style), but both are based on the reality of the alarm image as a template to make too, that the only difference between them in the right sense of reality on more detailed characterization, but nature does not jump out of the old framework to create new timekeeping, this time with a flat quasi-physical difference can be understood as a decorative technique on. Thus, in the course of the study must be combined with the use of a specific object context in order to make a correct understanding of the two design styles. Figure.1 Flat and materialized style icons Flat icons in visual form.From the perspective of the visual form of icons, smart phone interface icons can be distinguished from the two dimensions of time and space. From the time dimension, the phone icon can be divided into static and dynamic state. Which as the name suggests is a static icon icon elements remain static icon, the class icon is currently widely used in mobile phones user interface which. And dynamic visual style icon over time is changing, distracting when used in smaller interface, and thus rarely appear among the mobile phone interface. From the spatial dimension, the phone icon can be divided into two-dimensional, three-dimensional and three-dimensional space of three forms. Wherein the two-dimensional icon with the latter two diametrically opposed in style, it avoids the shadows, highlights, and other three-dimensional simulation of the effect of the material in the design process, resulting in the visual style it showed a strong tendency to flatten. Further subdivided on the basis of the two-dimensional handset icons can also be divided into simple monochrome icon and complex multi-color icons. Body element.Flat icons in the main element is the means to play a major role in the transmission of information in the icon section. Size icons. Due to differences in the smart phone hardware specifications and product positioning on, resulting in the current characteristics of the phone screen size diversity, and to interface design workers brought unprecedented challenges. At the same time, the size of the icon has become a matter of design choice requires workers often face. Flat internal icon generated.Products due to human practical needs to be created, early product form most simple and plain, after the Arts and Crafts Movement   after the products components have been decorated to a new height, in the subsequent internationalism movement, designers again return to reason, he began to pursue the simple and efficient design form. From the design evolution trend is easy to see: With the development of society, design forms are also experiencing an iterative development process from simple to complex and then to mobile phone interface icons materialized birth, it helps people reduce cognitive burden and narrow the distance between the display unit to assume an important role, but with the widespread adoption of smart phones, this role is already overtaken by events. In this case the public needs to be more simple, modern, and can be accommodated in the limited screen design in the form of additional information, in such a social environment flat s tyle icons have emerged, and quickly swept through the design. It is the image of the symbol of traditional design approach materialized icons used, namely by imitating real objects textures, shadows, and other effects of gradual way to shorten the distance between the user interface and product awareness to reduce costs. But in recent years with the rapid development of diverse Internet products and mobile phone functions, making the product interface is also more and more filled with information, because the flattened icons using more indicators and symbols, therefore its use in the mobile phone interface which also makes the smaller screen to hold more information, to achieve the maximum interface features. Flat external design generates.The arrival of web2.0 era, breaking the room Internet information barriers between each other, so that the user between the site and realize the two-way exchange of information. With the rapid proliferation of computers, many Internet users to be in the bottom-media background to create vast amounts of information resources, and gradually cause the current information explosion situation. As the Internet and smart phone product interface is filled with more and more information on the loose interface classify and organize the content becomes very important at the striking simplicity of flat icons used to distinguish between different content identification function on It is particularly efficient. To visualize the icons instead of boring text, not only shrink the layout, improve the rate of plate interface, but also convenient for users to search. With the upgrading of digital products continues to accelerate, the mobile phone market have been the birth of many different sizes and resolution display, which gives materialized from the shadows of the past, icons, textures, gradients, and other three-dimensional effect constitutes brought new challenges diversity phone screen enables designers need to create a variety of sizes and resolutions icons to adapt to this trend, which makes materialized icon design becomes both cumbersome and time-consuming, not only increases the workload of the designer, but also improve the development costs. The flat design uses icons to detail the elements more restrained and more use of vector graphic design elements and symbols, can solve the problem of adaptation at different resolutions. Flattened icons designed to minimalism as the core, advocated the adoption of a simplified rendering of images to reduce the complexity of a graphical interface, while the use of bright colors to improve the clarity of the interface layout, enables the user to focus more on desired completed tasks. Therefore, the above analysis shows that, flat style icons can help users better perform tasks more functional interface, especially in the smaller screen smart phone interface which, it can well improve recognizable icon element , efficient and user-friendly operating in different environments. Conclusion We analyzed the availability of flat icons. First, we analyzed the characteristics of smart phones and equipment operation, carded product usability evaluation system, eye tracking technology related indicators. We introduced the flat design concept, and through existing mobile phone brands and APP interface icons investigation and analysis summarizes the status of the application icon flat, visual form, color and size body element, and generating flat icon analysis of the causes. In the latter part of the article, in conjunction former interim research results, based on the collection and self-painted the corresponding flat icon creative design eye search experiment, and post-test questionnaire and subjects interviews of flat icons availability of comprehensive evaluation. Most smart phone interface design will be used simultaneously to two types of flat icons, such a design approach not only ensures improved aesthetics user interface operational efficiency, but also to some extent, it is possible to attract the users . With the social environment and the changing needs of users, smart phone interface design has been in development and change them, from the original materialized style to todays prevailing flat style appearance of the style icon of the phone has undergone tremendous change, to among the mobile phone interface usability studies icons flat, one can explore the actual efficiency of the icon, subjective feelings and understanding of user satisfaction rating in the course of the icons, it also can be the basis of empirical research on future icon design work to provide a reference and reference. References 1. Lupton, Ellen, and Jennifer Cole Phillips. Graphic Design: The New Basics: Revised and Expanded. Chronicle Books, 2015. 2. Calori, Chris, and David Vanden-Eynden. Signage and wayfinding design: a complete guide to creating environmental graphic design systems. John Wiley Sons, 2015. 3. Krasner, Jon. Motion graphic design: applied history and aesthetics. Taylor Francis, 2013. 4. Ly, Tiffanie. CST 300L October 7, 2013 The Growth of Graphic Design and the Designer Graphic design is an art medium that communicates through combining specific elements to create the representation of a certain product or project. This art form is unknowingly. Growth (2013). 5. Wang, Qi, and Huifang Li. Analysis on Tactile Field in Current Graphic Vision Design. 3rd International Conference on Science and Social Research (ICSSR 2014). Atlantis Press, 2014.

The Health Benefits of Exercise Essay -- Healthy Lifestyle Essay

Exercise is one of the most important factors in a persons’ life. Physical activity, or the lack of it, can result in a person having a healthy life or cause them to have diabetes. The benefits of exercise are countless. The positive health results, the improvement in attitude, even better academic performance are all factors which make not exercising inexcusable. Merely not using a person’s body is harmful. Not being active results in a person’s muscles becoming weak and out of condition. The effectiveness of a person’s heart and lungs will decrease. A person’s joints will become stiff and can be injured easily. Inactivity can be as much of a health risk as smoking. In addition children have become extremely lazy with all the entertainment available in this day and age. Most Americans watch three and a half hours of television every day. By the age of sixty five over nine years will have been spent in front of a screen. Over one-third children from ages four to nineteen eat fast food every day and fifteen percent in that age set are obese. It is especially important to prevent children and adolescences from becoming obese. According to â€Å"Obesity and Overweight for Professionals: Data and Statistics† eighty percent of obese children become obese adults. The number of overweight children in America has dou bled since the 1980s. People have begun resorting to unsuccessful diets and each day thousands of teens become bulimic or anorexic to lose weight. Thirty four to thirty seven percent of adults in America are obese. This has increased dramatically in the past twenty years (â€Å"Obesity†). The simple answer to this problem is to start exercising. The U.S. Department of Health and Human services says that children and teens need a... ...ical Activity for Families and Children." National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Web. 24 Apr. 2011. . Llewellyn, Claire. Exercise. London: QED, 2006. Print. â€Å"Mayo Clinic.† Web. 27 Apr. 2011. . "Obesity and Overweight for Professionals: Data and Statistics | DNPAO | CDC." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. 24 Apr. 2011. . Payment, Simone. What Happens to Your Body When You Run. New York, NY: Rosen Central, 2010. Print. The World Book Encyclopedia. Chicago: World Book, 2001. Print. "What Is Basal Metabolic Rate?" Personal Trainer Cindy Brotherston for Fitness, Weight Loss and Nutrition. Web. 24 Apr. 2011. .

The Media and Eating Disorders Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Topic

The Media and Eating Disorders It is funny how so many girls and women today are led to believe that the only way to feel attractive and be beautiful is to have their bodies consist of nothing but skin and bones. Women are dieting more today then they have ever been before. They are striving for an unattainable body figure that is portrayed by the media as being the ideal standard for today's women. It gets worse. Not only are women dieting unlike ever before, but they will ruthlessly harm their bodies in order to achieve these inaccessible standards. This ruthless harm that haunts so many women today just so happens to be what we call eating disorders. Anorexia and bulimia are the primary diseases that go in the category of eating disorders. Who is to blame for this daunting occurrence? In most cases, the media is either some or all to blame for the eating disorder and standards placed for women. Commercials, billboards, women's magazine ads, etc. are all forms of the media that portray negative images of women. When the women in today's society sees what is being advertised (which happens hundreds, if not thousands of times a day) it is not so shocking that many of them strive for these impossible body images. It is when the want and desire becomes so strong that these women drive themselves to starvation and other forms of eating disorders. In order to realize the effect that advertising is having on girls and women in society today, it is important for people to know the facts and statistics that are current about eating disorders. Eight million girls and women are affected with eating disorders (Wilson and Blackhurst 111). Among college-aged women, bulimia affects nearly one in every five (Wilson and Blackhurst 1... ...than the media. It is important, though, to recognize the kind of effect media and advertising has on women. It is important to realize that because of what is portrayed in Western society, many women will go to great lengths (sometimes deadly lengths) just to meet these portrayals. If society wants to change what women are doing to themselves every day, than it is up to the media to start showing women today that it is okay to be who you are, big or small. Works Cited Key, Sandra W.; Lindgren, Maryclaire. "Skinny Models in Ads Cause Immediate Anger, Depression in Women." Women's Health Weekly (5/11/99) 11. Wilson, Nona L.; Blackhurst, Anne E. "Food Advertising and Eating Disorders: Marketing Body Dissatisfaction, the Drive for Thinness, and Dieting in Women's Magazines." Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education & Development 38 (99) 111-122.

Matelda ?a Lady Moved by Love? :: essays research papers

In Dante’s Divina Commedia, he takes on a journey with unforgettable characters, from the poets from antiquity, demons, giants, and finally too famous saints. Dante’s and the character interaction with them are what make this story. They are the legs on which this work was able to stand for so many years as a masterpiece. It was the characters that I most enjoyed it this work, you find yourself loving and hating the different shades you meet during Hell, the penitents of Purgatory and the saints of Heaven. The most developed characters we find in Commedia are Dante, Virgil and Beatrice. Yet there are several minor characters that if one looks more closely are just as interesting as our main stars. One such minor character is my favorite Matelda, and also a perfect example of Dante’s brilliance in characterization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Matelda is a minor guide that helps Dante after Virgil disappears, and until Beatrice takes him to heaven (Cantos XXVIII- XXXIII). Although Matelda may look like a plain old static-stock character , her motives are pure, her actions consistent and she is plausible as a guardian angel type whose actions are moved by the Divine love in her. Dante the Character at this point in the story is about to leave the world literally and to meet his love Beatrice (who actually yells at him for his sin, before taking him to heaven). He has been left by his faithful guide, Virgil (which he doesn’t even notice at first has been gone for a few cantos) and finds himself in the hand of a loving and beautiful hands of Matelda.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Matelda is a perfect guardian angel for Dante at this point in his journey, and faithful to helping him during this transition. Are her actions consistent? Yes. all are in line with Divine Love. We see this trough her actions. We first meet her she is the lovely creature that resides in the Garden of Eden. At Dante’s request she explains all of his questions. She guides him through the Garden and then washes him clean and helps him to drink from the rivers of memories, all after he gets reprimanded by Beatrice. All this is done out of Love, for it is ultimately Divine Love that motivates her, motives that are pure in guiding her charge. For example â€Å"Why are you so intent on looking only at those living lights? Have you no wish to see what comes behind?† This encouragement will help Dante to move forward to his goal. Yet I think it’s her purity of motives that make her a static character because

Communication Style Essay

Communication is a message conveyed with words, body language, vocal inflections, and personal space and the meaning understood by the recipient. Problems occur when the message received is not the message sent. What’s My Communication Style assesses and identifies a person’s dominate communication style. It outlines the strengths and weaknesses of the four styles: Spirit, Direct, Systematic and Considerate. Knowing which style you are comfortable with and which styles you need to improve upon will increase the effectiveness of your communication. This assessment was enlightening because I scored relatively close on three of the four styles. After reviewing the details of each style, I see myself in those three characteristics. I scored 8, 7, and 6 on Spirited, Considerate and Systematic respectively. Therefore, I maintain my dominate style is Enthusiastic and adapts based on my audience. The positive aspects of a spirited style are persuasiveness, enthusiasm and working at a fast pace. Similarly, the considerate style listens well, values relationships and builds trust. I think all of these qualities are essential in project management. For example, at work I always ask how people’s families are or how their weekend went before we start a planning meeting. I listen to what each department thinks is the most important needs and tasks to be addressed during the project. Above all though, I want to gather all the facts before we get started and then decide how we are going to proceed. When problems arise during the project, I listen to each responsible department to see what they think went wrong, make my own assessment and then make plans to correct and put the project back on plan. To strengthen my spirited style, I need to focus on including everyone better so they feel like a more substantial part of the team. One trouble spot that I would like to work on is my organization skills. I’ve noticed that I gloss over the less important details if they are not written down on my to do list. Glossing over the details usually means mistakes that need to be corrected. If I were more organized and detail oriented, we could reduce the number of errors during the project. Most of the time, my teams have all different types of communication styles. During meetings, I can usually tell which style they are most comfortable with based on how they structure their questions. I make a point to address their comments or concerns in their type of style, although I do it enthusiastically. This can be a problem for me when I have a teammate that is too emotional in a meeting. I get frustrated when the conversation has little substance. I want to get the facts and to the point so that we can create an action item list for the team. Similarly, I prefer to avoid addressing conflicts. When they get brought up, I always try to find a path that will appease the masses while still keeping our goals in sight. Because I am so enthusiastic, I like being around other spirited people. It is easy for me to connect with people that are similarly good story tellers, fast paced and high energy. I am drawn to them and feel encouraged to share my experiences. At work, however, I really value people who are articulate, factual, decisive and direct. When we have action items and a deadline, I am focused and want to surround myself with like-minded individuals. I am most challenged working with people that are extremely systematic. I’m currently working with a guy in our IT department who is very precise. He will correct you if you miss speak or have inaccurate facts. I find it difficult to connect with him on a personal level. I have to remember to be overly prepared and armed with details of our project when we have a meeting. During one particular proposal meeting, I really focused on the details and had all my facts. I had an answer for all of his questions. Because I was prepared, I had built that trust that I was trying to build by connecting with him personally. In this case, adapting to my audience was a success. In conclusion, this communication style assignment has been very educational. The assessment helped me identify which styles that I am comfortable with. The lesson taught me how best to identify and communicate with my team to be a better leader. The introspection has shown me my strengths and my trouble spots with areas to focus on.

Historical Development of Nursing Timeline

Historical Development of Nursing Timeline Olga NUR/513 Historical Development of Nursing Timeline Nursing is an art and a science. This coexistence assists in the development and advancement of nursing to a higher level of professional practice. The art of nursing emphasizes interpersonal relationships between the nurse and the patient, empathy, and dedication to caring for a patient. The science is the foundation of nursing that guides nursing care based upon the latest scientific discoveries within the nursing and other related disciplines such as medicine, psychology, and social sciences (Walker & Avant, 2011).In biblical times, female members of societies were responsible for caring for ill. There was neither organized care, nor science behind the methods of caring: the approaches were passed among the women and were centered on their religious views on sickness and health. The people who provided care were untrained and often belonged to the lowest economic classes, such as sla ves. The first organized groups who performed nursing care were male nursing orders in 1300s, such as the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem (Anderson, 1981).During the 16th and 17th century, nursing jobs fell into â€Å"dark ages† becoming synonymous with alcoholism, prostitution, and the waste of society (Anderson, 1981, p. 20). The first nursing school, the Deaconess School of Nursing at Kaiserwerth, Germany was established in 1836. Physicians instructed nursing students about bedside care and how to provide nursing care (Anderson, 1981). The development of nursing science is traced back to Florence Nightingale, whose initial study â€Å"Notes of Nursing† (1859) represents the first nursing theory (George, 2011). Nightingale supported her nursing experiences with statistical data.Nightingale’s analysis of the positive impact of a clean environment on decreasing morbidity and mortality among the soldiers during the Crimean War became the model for changing the n ursing practice from an art to a combination of art and science (Burns, Grove, 2007). Nightingale established nursing program at St. Thomas Hospital in London that correlate nursing theory and practice. This school became a model for nursing education. The medicine continued to provide nursing guidelines and influenced nursing practice. The nurses remained relegated to the status of obedience servant to the authoritarian doctors.The nurses were obligated to obey the physician’s orders faithfully, â€Å"never be guilty of making suggestions to the doctor,† since â€Å"she [nurse] is there to carry out his [physician] orders† (Walker & Holmes, 2008, p. 111). The lack of preparation and education among the nurses was obvious. Universities began establishing nursing programs throughout the United States. The University of Texas (1894), the Columbia University (1899), the University of Minnesota (1908), and others opened schools of nursing (Anderson, 1981). In 1923, Teachers College at Columbia University offered the first educational nursing program at doctorial level.The first master’s degree in nursing was established in 1929 at Yale University (Burns & Grove, 2007). During the 1940s, the nursing literature continued to emphasize the practical skills of the nursing. Most of the existing manuals viewed nursing as â€Å"the hand† and medicine as â€Å"the head as its primary signifier† (Walker, Holmes, 2008, 114). In 1950s, the first nursing theorists were graduates from the Columbia University’s Teachers College educational programs. Their theories were based on practical nursing. The focus of these theories was the patients’ needs.Peplau (1952/1988) presented interpersonal relations in nursing theory (George, 2011). In 1959, Hall presented care, core, and cure theory, where caring and nurturing for a patient were interconnected with patient’s ability to make decisions of â€Å"therapeutic use of sel f† (George, 2011, p. 183). Many of the nursing leaders in this era recognized that nursing science and theory development were needed to change the status of nursing from a career to a profession (Walker & Avant, 2011). The theories developed during the 1960s focused on the relationships between the nurse and the patient.The theorists from Yale School, such as Henderson and Orlando, proposed their theories. Henderson in 1960, defined nursing as â€Å"assisting† and â€Å"help† for the individuals, focusing on the individual plan of care (George, 2011, p. 89). Orlando’s 1961 theory, The Dynamic Nurse-Patient Relationship: Function, Process, and Principles described nursing as an interactive process between the nurse and the individual patient within the immediate situation. Orlando shifted the focus of nursing from assisting the physician to assisting the patient, and promoted the independence of nursing (George, 2011). In 1965, the American NursingAssociat ion recommended two levels of nursing education, the baccalaureate and the associate, to distinguish the education for a professional nursing from that of the technical nursing profession. During the same time frame, the amount of nursing research was increasing. Nurses became involved in the development of frameworks for nursing practice guidelines (Burns & Grove, 2007). During the 1970s, many nursing theories were revised. Rogers, King, Orem, Neuman, and Watson symbolized this era of nursing theorists. Their theories provided the foundation for the nursing profession, integrating arts, science, and philosophy into nursing.They focused on human behavior and emphasized the complexity of nursing. The theorists presented the individual as the whole system of the physiological, psychosocial, developmental, cultural, and spiritual elements (George, 2011; Burns & Grove, 2007). The development of the nursing during 1980s was characterized by increased nursing research. Many theories were revised and new theories were proposed. The theories of Erickson, Benner, Leininger, Orem, Roy, King, Watson, Levine, and others represent this era (Burns & Grove, 2007).The 1990s was characterized by an increasing number of middle range theories that provided guidelines for evidence-based nursing practice. During this time the nursing theories took an international approach with publications and conferences (George, 2011). Throughout the decades, the development of nursing science was influenced by other disciplines, such as religion, philosophy, psychology, anthropology, and social sciences. Religion blamed diseases as a punishment for sins. Philosophy knowledge base of truth, mind, language, and values, widely affected nursing development.Conceptual models in nursing are the examples of the influence of philosophy on the nursing. For example, Roger’s model explained the nature of the human beings (Burns & Grove, 2007). Watson’s theory reflects philosophical beliefs of caring. Nursing ethics took its origins from the philosophy. Psychology as the study of mind and behavior was used by the nursing theorists. For example, Roy and Roberts (1981) created the theory of adaptation model by deriving it from the psychophysics theory of Helson (1964) (Walker & Avant, 2011). Florence Nightingale ushered in a new era in nursing.Prior to her, there was no science behind the methods of caring. Nurses were associated with alcoholism, prostitution, and the waste of society. The mid-19th century saw the beginning of nursing schools. Florence Nightingale was credited with writing the first nursing theory, but since the 1950s nursing theories have proliferated. Nursing science and knowledge has flourished ushering in a new era in nursing, changing the status of nursing from a career to a profession. References Anderson, N. E. (1981). The Historical Development of American Nursing Education. Journal of Nursing Education, 20(1), 18 – 36.Burns, N. & Grove, S . K. (2007). Understanding nursing research: Building an evidence-based practice (4th ed. ). St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders. George, J. B. (2011). Nursing theories: The base for professional nursing practice (6th ed. ). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Walker, K. & Holmes, C. A. (2008). The ‘order of things’: Tracing a history of the present through a re-reading of the past in nursing education. Contemporary Nurse, 30, 106 – 118. Walker, L. O. & Avant, K. C. (2011). Strategies for theory construction in nursing (5th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.